ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BC
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BC
Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BC–206 BC
Han Dynasty 206 BC–220 AD
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265–420
Western Jin 16 Kingdoms
304–439
Eastern Jin
Southern & Northern Dynasties
420–589
Sui Dynasty 581–618
Tang Dynasty 618–907
( Second Zhou 690–705 )
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907–960 Liao Dynasty
907–1125
Song Dynasty
960–1279
Northern Song W. Xia
Southern Song Jin
Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
Qing Dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic
of China
1949–present
Republic
of China
(Taiwan)
1945–present
The Spring and Autumn Period (simplified Chinese: 春秋时代; traditional Chinese: 春秋時代; pinyin: Chūnqiū Shídài; Jyutping: ceon1 cau1 si4 doi6) was a period in Chinese history, which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC to the first half of the 5th century BC). Its name comes from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 BC and 479 BC, which tradition associates with Confucius. The period itself lasted between 770 BC and 476 BC.
During the Spring and Autumn period, China was ruled by a feudal system. The Zhou Dynasty kings held nominal power, but only directly ruled over a small Royal Demesne, revolving around their capital (modern-day Luoyang). They granted fiefdoms over the rest of China to several hundred hereditary nobles (Zhuhou 諸侯). These were descendants of members of the Zhou clan, close associates of the founders of the dynasty, or local potentates. The most important feudal princes (known later as the twelve princes, 十二諸侯) met during regular conferences, where important matters, such as military expeditions against foreign groups or offending nobles were decided. During these conferences, one prince was sometimes declared hegemon (伯, later 霸), and given leadership over the armies of all the feudal states.
As the era unfolded, larger more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones. By the 6th century BC, most small states had disappeared, and a few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou. Wars were undertaken to oppose some of these states (Wu and Yue). In the state of Jin, six powerful families fought for supremacy, and a series of civil wars resulted in the splitting of Jin into three smaller states by the beginning of the fifth century.
At the same time, the control Zhou kings exerted over feudal princes slowly but inexorably faded. Eventually the nominal Zhou kings lost all real influence, the feudal system crumbled, and the Warring States Period began.
Beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
After the Zhou capital was sacked by western barbarian tribes, crown prince Ji Yijiu (姬宜臼) fled to the east. During the flight from the western capital to the east, the king relied on the nearby lords of Qi (齊), Zheng (鄭) and Jin (晉) for protection from barbarians and rebellious lords. He moved the Zhou capital from Zongzhou (Hao) to Chengzhou (Luoyang) in the Yellow River valley.
The fleeing Zhou elite did not have strong footholds in the eastern territories; even the crown prince's coronation had to be supported by those states to be successful. With the Zhou domain greatly reduced, i.e. to Luoyang and nearby areas, the court could no longer support six groups of standing troops (六軍, liù jūn). Subsequent Zhou kings had to request help from neighbouring powerful states for protection from raids and for resolution of internal power struggles. The Zhou court would never regain its original authority; instead, it was relegated to being merely a figurehead of the feudal states. Though the king de jure retained the Mandate of Heaven, de facto the title held no real power.
Rise of the hegemonies
The first nobility to help the Zhou kings was the Duke Zhuang of Zheng (鄭庄公) (r. 743 BC-701 BC). He was the first to establish the hegemonical system (bà 霸), which was intended to retain the old proto-feudal system. Traditional historians justified the new system as a means of protecting weaker civilized states and the Zhou royalty from the intruding "barbarian" tribes. Located in the south, north, east and west, the barbarian tribes were, respectively, the Man, Yi, Rong and Di.
The newly powerful states were more eager to maintain aristocratic privileges over the traditional ideology of supporting the weak ruling entity during times of unrest (匡扶社稷 kuāng fú shè jì), which was to be widely propagated during imperial China to consolidate power into the ruling family.
Dukes Huan of Qi (r. 685 BC-643 BC) and Wen of Jin (r. 636 BC-628 BC) made further steps in installing the overlordship system, which brought relative stability, but in shorter time periods than before. Annexations increased, favoring the several most powerful states, including Qin, Jin, Qi and Chu. The overlord role gradually drifted from its stated intention of protecting weaker states; the overlordship eventually became a system of hegemony of major states over weaker satellites of Chinese and "barbarian" origin.
The great states used the pretext of aid and protection to intervene and gain advantages over the smaller states during their internal quarrels. Later overlords were mostly derived from these great states. They proclaimed themselves master of their territories, without even recognizing the petty figurehead of Zhou. Establishment of the local administration system (Jun and Xian), with its officials appointed by the government, gave states better control over the dominion. Taxation facilitated commerce and agriculture more than proto-feudalism.
The three states of Qin, Jin and Qi not only optimized their own strength, but also repelled the southern state of Chu, whose rulers had proclaimed themselves kings. The Chu armies gradually intruded into the Yellow River Basin. Framing Chu as the "southern barbarian", Chu Man, was merely a pretext to warn Chu not to intervene into their respective spheres of influence. Chu intrusion was checked several times in three major battles with increasing violence - the Battle of Chengpu, the Battle of Bi and the Battle of Yanling; this resulted in the restorations of the states of Chen and Cai.
Interstate relations
See main article: Interstate relations during the Spring and Autumn period.
During the period a complex system of interstate relations developed. It was partially structured upon the Western Zhou system of feudalism, but elements of realpolitik were emerging. A collection of interstate customary norms and values, which can perhaps be loosely termed international law, was also evident. As the operational and cultural areas of states expanded and intersected, diplomatic encounters increased.
Changing tempo of war
After a period of increasingly exhaustive warfare, Qi, Qin, Jin and Chu finally met for a disarmament conference in 579 BC, where the other states essentially became satellites. In 546 BC, Jin and Chu agreed to yet another truce.
During the relatively peaceful 6th century BC, the two coastal states, Wu in today's Jiangsu, and Yue in today's Zhejiang, gradually grew in power. After defeating and forcing the suicide King Fuchai of Wu, King Goujian of Yue (r. 496 BC-465 BC) became the last recognized overlord.
This era of peace was only a prelude to the maelstrom of the Warring States Period. The four powerful states were all in the midst of power struggles. Six elite landholding families waged war on each other in Jin. The Chen family was eliminating political enemies in Qi. Legitimacy of the rulers was often challenged in civil wars by various royal family members in Qin and Chu. Once all these power strugglers firmly established themselves in their dominions, the bloodshed among states would continue in the Warring States Period. The Warring States Period officially started in 403 BC when the three remaining elite families in Jin - Zhao, Wei and Han - partitioned the state; the impotent Zhou court was forced to recognize their authority.
List of overlords (Ba)
See main article: Five Hegemons (Spring and Autumn Period)
Traditionally, the Five Overlords of Spring and Autumn Period (春秋五霸 Chūn Qiū Wǔ Bà) include:
- Duke Huan of Qi (齊桓公)
- Duke Wen of Jin (晉文公)
- King Zhuang of Chu (楚莊王)
- Duke Mu of Qin (秦穆公)
- Duke Xiang of Song (宋襄公)
While some other historians suggest that the Five Overlords include:
- Duke Huan of Qi (齊桓公)
- Duke Wen of Jin (晉文公)
- King Zhuang of Chu (楚庄王)
- King Fuchai of Wu (吳王夫差)
- King Goujian of Yue (越王勾踐)
Table of States
States of the Spring and Autumn Period Name Chinese( Trad./Simp.) Capital (s) Established Dissolved
Cài 蔡 Shàngcài (上蔡)
Xīncài (新蔡)
Xiàcài (下蔡) Before 1043 BCE 447 BCE
Cáo 曹 Táoqiū (陶丘) Before 1043 BCE 487 BCE
Chén 陳/陈 Wănqiū (宛丘) c. 1046 BCE 479 BCE
Chŭ 楚 Dānyáng（丹陽/丹阳）c. 1030 - c. 680 BCE
Yĭng (郢) c.680 - 278 BCE
Chén (陳/陈) 278 - 241 BCE
Shòuchūn (寿春) from 241 - 224 BCE c. 1030 BCE 223 BCE
Dèng 鄧/邓 Dèngzhōu (鄧州/邓州), Henan Province or Xiāngfán (襄樊), Hubei Province c. 1200 BCE 678 BCE
Dōng Guó 東虢/东虢 unknown 1046 BCE 767 BCE
Huá 滑 Fèi 費/费 unknown 627 BCE
Jìn 晉/晋 Táng (唐), renamed Jìnyáng (晉陽/晋陽)
Qŭwò (曲沃)
Jiàng (絳/绛) also known as Yì (翼)
Xīntián (新田), renamed Xīnjiàng (新絳新绛) 11th Century BCE 376 BCE
Liáng 梁 Hánchéng (韩城) unknown 641 BCE
Lŭ 魯/鲁 Lŭshān (魯山)
Yănchéng (奄城)
Qŭfù (曲阜) 11th Century BCE 256 BCE
Qí 齊/齐 Yíngqiū (營丘/营丘) 1046 BCE 221 BCE
Qín 秦 Xīchuí (西垂)
Yōng (雍)
Xiányáng (咸阳) 9th Century BCE 206 BCE
Shēn 申 Nányáng (南阳) unknown between 688 and 680 BCE
Shŭ 蜀 possibly Sānxīngduī (三星堆) Before 1046 BCE 316 BCE
Sòng 宋 Shāngqiū (商丘) 11th Century BCE 286 BCE
Téng 滕 Téng (滕) Before 1043 BCE mid 4th Century BCE
Wèi 衛/卫 Zhāogē.(朝歌)
Cáo (曹)
Chŭqiū (楚丘)
Dìqiū (帝丘)
Yĕwáng (野王) 11th Century BCE 209 BCE
Wú 吴/吳 Wú (吳/吴), sometimes referred to as Gūsū（姑蘇/姑苏） 11th Century BCE 473 BCE
Xī 息 Xī Xiàn (息县) 1122 BCE Between 684 and 680 BCE
Xī Guó 西虢/西虢 Yōngdì (雍地)
Shàngyáng (上阳)
Xiàyáng (下阳) 1046 BCE 687 BCE
Xú 徐 Tangcheng (郯城) c. 20th Century BCE 512 BCE
Xŭ 許/许 (or 鄦) Xŭ (鄦)
Yè (叶)
Báiyŭ (白羽)
Róngchéng (容城) c. 11th Century BCE c. 5th Century BCE
Yān 燕 Jì (薊) 11th Century BCE 222 BCE
Yù 郁 unknown unknown unknown
Yuè 越 Kuàjī (會稽/会稽)
Lángyá (琅琊)
Wú (吴/吳)
Kuàjī (會稽/会稽) unknown 306 BCE
Zhèng 鄭/郑 Zhèng (鄭/郑)
Xìnzhèng (新郑) 806 BCE 375 BCE
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