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Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Plevna Monument near the walls of Kitai-gorod
Date April 24, 1877 – March 3, 1878
Location Balkans, Caucasus
Result Russian victory; Treaty of Berlin
Territorial
changes Reestablishment of the Bulgarian state; full independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro from Ottoman Empire; Kars becomes a part of the Russian Empire
Belligerents
Russian Empire
Romania
Serbia
Montenegro
Bulgarian volunteers
Ottoman Empire
Commanders
Mikhail Skobelev Michael Nikolaevich Mikhail Loris-Melikov Joseph Gourko Ivan Lazarev Carol I of Romania Kosta Protić
Ahmed Muhtar Pasha Osman Pasha Suleiman Pasha Mehemet Ali Veisel Pasha
Casualties and losses
Russian: 27,512 killed in battle, missing in action, and died of wounds. 49,828 wounded. 46,000+ non-combat deaths, mostly from disease. [1]
Romanian: 4,302 dead and missing, 3,316 wounded, 19,904 sick.[2]
151,750+ killed, wounded, or capturedKızıl-Tepe – Simnitza – Svistov – Nikopol – 1st Shipka Pass – 2nd Shipka Pass – Lovcha – 3rd Shipka Pass – Gorni-Dubnik – Kars – Pleven – Tashkessen – 4th Shipka Pass – Plovdiv
1568–1570 · 1571–1572 · 1676–1681 · 1686–1700 · 1687–1689 · 1695–1696 · Great Northern War · 1710–1711 · 1735–1739 · 1768–1774 · 1787–1792 · 1806–1812 · 1828–1829 · 1853–1856 (Crimean War) · 1877–1878 · 1914–1918 (World War I) ·
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 had its origins in a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as in the Russian goal of recovering territorial losses it had suffered during the Crimean War, reestablishing itself in the Black Sea and following the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire.
As a result of the war, the principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, each of which had had de facto sovereignty for some time, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. After four centuries of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), the Bulgarian state was reestablished as the Principality of Bulgaria, covering the land between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains (except Northern Dobrudja which was given to Romania) and the region of Sofia, which became the new state's capital. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and the United Kingdom to take over Cyprus, while the Russian Empire annexed Southern Bessarabia and the Kars region.
Conflict pre-history
Treatment of Christians in the Ottoman empire
Article 9 of the Paris Peace Treaty, concluded at the end of the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. An edict, Hatt-ı Hümayun, was issued that proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims[3], and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.[4]
However, some key aspects of Dhimmi status was retained; for example, the testimony of Christians against Muslims was not accepted in courts, which granted Muslims effective immunity for offenses conducted against Christians. Although on a local level, relations between communities were often good, this practice encouraged the worst elements of Muslim society to exploit the situation. The abuses were at their worst in regions with a predominantly Christian population, mainly located in the European part of the empire, where local authorities often openly supported them as a means to keep Christians subjugated[5].
The financial strain on the treasury caused by the Crimean War forced the Ottoman government to take a series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all the fiscal reforms that followed, pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim Circassians, expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus, to the Black Sea ports of north Anatolia and the Balkan ports of Constanţa and Varna, which cost a great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities.[6]
Crisis in Lebanon, 1860
In 1858 the Maronite peasants, stirred by the clergy, revolted against their Maronite feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Lebanon, where Maronite peasants worked for Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their overlords against the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war. Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at the hands of the Druzes[7][8].
In Syria, events in Lebanon stirred the Muslim population of Damascus to attack the Christian minority with between 5,000 to over 25,000 of the latter being killed,[citation needed] including the American and Dutch consuls, giving the event an international dimension.
Under the threat of European intervention, Ottoman authorities restored order. Nevertheless French and British intervention followed[9]. Under further European pressure, the Sultan agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was to be submitted by the Sultan and approved by the European powers[7].
The Revolt in Crete, 1866–1869
