Roman Republic

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with the Roman Republic (19th century). Official name (as on coins):
Roma

after ca. 100 BC:
Senatus Populusque Romanus
("The Senate and People of Rome")

Roman Republic
←
509 BC–27 BC →

SPQR

Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. 44 BC
Capital Rome
Language(s) Latin, Greek
Religion Roman polytheism
Government Republic
Consul
 - 509–508 BC Lucius Junius Brutus, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus
 - 27 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Legislature Roman assemblies
Historical era Classical antiquity
 - Rape of Lucretia 509 BC
 - Caesar proclaimed perpetual dictator 44 BC
 - Battle of Actium 2 October 31 BC
 - Octavian proclaimed Augustus 16 January 27 BC
Area
 - 326 BC[1] 10,000 km² (3,861 sq mi)
 - 200 BC[1] 360,000 km² (138,997 sq mi)
 - 146 BC[1] 800,000 km² (308,882 sq mi)
 - 100 BC[1] 1,200,000 km² (463,323 sq mi)
 - 50 BC[1] 1,950,000 km² (752,899 sq mi)

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy, or the patricians, and other talented Romans who were not from famous families, the plebeians. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.

During the first two centuries, the Republic saw its territory expand from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. In the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, it grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. At this point, the republican political machinery was replaced with imperialism.

The precise event which signaled the end of the Roman Republic and the transition into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Towards the end of the period a selection of Roman leaders came to so dominate the political arena that they exceeded the limitations of the Republic as a matter of course. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian (Augustus) under the first settlement in 27 BC, as candidates for the defining pivotal event ending the Republic.

Many of Rome's legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and the rest of the world by modern states and organisations. The Romans' Latin language has influenced grammar and vocabulary across Europe and the world.

Historical

According to the more or less legendary traditional accounts, Rome's republican era began after the overthrow of the last Roman King of the Tarquin monarchy by Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 BC. The republic of Rome was then ruled by the Senate and its assembly which were put in place as far back as the beginning of the monarchy.[2]

The Roman Republic was governed by a largely complex constitution, which centred on the principles of a separation of powers and comprised a host of checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy and the other prominent Romans who were not from the nobility. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy, the patricians, who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.

Rome also saw its territory expand dramatically during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome's influence expanded to cover the whole of Italy. During the next century, Rome's military muscle and developing economy dominated North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome overcame resistance across the rest of modern France, as well as much of Anatolia and Syria.

Constitution

The Constitution of the Roman Republic was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.[3] The Roman constitution was not formal or even official. It was largely unwritten, uncodified, and constantly evolving.

The Senate

The Senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the Senate.[4] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the high calibre and prestige of the Senators.[5] The Senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[6] The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy.[7] Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the Senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The senate also managed the civil administration in the city and the town. The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. New Senators had to be approved by the sitting members.

Legislative Assemblies

It was the People of Rome - and thus the assemblies - who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates,[8] the enactment of new laws,[9] the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.[8] There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[10] which were assemblies of all citizens. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens.[11]

Assembly of the Centuries

Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes. The centuries and the tribes would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries. The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul.[12] The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census.[13] It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.[14]

Assembly of the Tribes

The assembly of the tribes, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul,[12] and was composed of thirty-five tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[15] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[16] Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[17]

Plebeian Council

The Plebeian Council[18] was an assembly of plebeians, the non-patrician citizens of Rome, who would gather into their respective tribes. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal. Since it was organized on the basis of the tribes, its rules and procedures were nearly identical to those of the Comitia Tributa.

Executive Magistrates

Each magistrate was vested with a degree of maior potestas ("major power").[19] Each magistrate could veto any action that was taken by a magistrate of an equal or lower rank. Plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles, on the other hand, were independent of the other magistrates.[12][19]