The story was translated into English for the first time by Helen Craig McCullough. The translation was published in 1988.
It was retold in Japanese prose by famous historical novelist Eiji Yoshikawa, published in Asahi Weekly in 1950 with the title New Tale of the Heike.
The Tale of the Heike cannot be reduced to a single creator; rather, much like Ancient Greek epic poems, it is the result of the conglomeration of differing versions passed down through an oral tradition by biwa-playing bards known as biwa hōshi.
The monk Yoshida Kenkō (1282-1350) offers a theory as to the authorship of the text, in his famous work "Essays in Idleness" (Tsurezuregusa), which he wrote in 1330. According to Kenkō, "Yukinaga wrote Heike monogatari and showed it to a blind man called Shōbutsu to chant it." He also confirms the biwa connection of that blind man, who "was natural from the eastern tract", and who was sent from Yukinaga to "recollect some information about samurai, about their bows, their horses and their war strategy. Yukinaga wrote it after that." One of the key points in this theory is that the book was written in a difficult combination of Chinese and Japanese ( wakan konkō shō) only deliverable by an enlightened monk in that times, like Yukinaga. However, in the end, as the tale is the result of a long oral tradition, there is no single true author; Yukinaga is only one possibility of being the first to compile this masterpiece into a written form. Moreover, as it is true that there are frequent steps back, and that the style isn't the same throughout the composition, this cannot mean anything but that it is a collective work.
The story of the Heike was compiled from a collection of oral stories recited by traveling monks who chanted to the accompaniment of the biwa, an instrument reminiscent of the lute. The most widely read version of the Heike monogatari was compiled by a blind monk named Kakuichi in 1371. The Heike is considered one of the great classics of medieval Japanese literature.
The central theme of the story is the Buddhist law of impermanence. The theme of impermanence (mujō) is captured in the famous opening passage:
祗園精舎の鐘の声、諸行無常の響きあり。娑羅双樹の花の色、盛者必衰の理をあらわす。 おごれる人も久しからず、唯春の夜の夢のごとし。たけき者も遂にはほろびぬ、偏に風の前の塵に同じ。-- Chapter 1.1, Helen Craig McCullough's translationThe sound of the Gion Shōja bells echoes the impermanence of all things; the color of the sāla flowers reveals the truth that the prosperous must decline. The proud do not endure, they are like a dream on a spring night; the mighty fall at last, they are as dust before the wind.
The fall of the powerful Taira – the samurai clan who defeated the imperial-backed Minamoto in 1161 – symbolizes the theme of impermanence in the Heike. The Taira warrior family sowed the seeds of their own destruction with acts of arrogance and pride that led to their defeat in 1185 at the hands of the revitalized Minamoto.
The story is episodic in nature and designed to be told in a series of nightly installments. It is primarily a samurai epic focusing on warrior culture – an ideology that ultimately laid the groundwork for bushido (the way of the warrior). The Heike also includes a number of love stories, which harkens back to earlier Heian literature.
The story is roughly divided into three sections. The central figure of the first section is Taira no Kiyomori (平清盛) who is described as arrogant, evil, ruthless and so consumed by the fires of hatred that even in death his feverish body does not cool when immersed in water. The main figure of the second section is the Minamoto general Minamoto no Yoshinaka (源義仲). After he dies the main figure of the third section is the great samurai, Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源義経), a military genius who is falsely accused of treachery by his politically astute elder brother Minamoto no Yoritomo (源頼朝).
The Tale of the Heike has provided material for many later artistic works ranging from Noh plays to woodblock prints, and is also referenced in modern works.
The Japanese have developed a number of complementary strategies for capturing, preserving and disseminating the essential elements of their commonly-accepted national history – chronicles of sovereigns and events, biographies of eminent persons and personalities, and the military tale or gunki monogatari. This last form evolved from an interest in recording the activities of military conflicts in the late 12th century. The major battles, the small skirmishes and the individual contests -- and the military figures who animate these accounts -- have all been passed from generation to generation in the narrative formats of the Hōgen monogatari (1156),[1] the Heiji monagatari (1159-1160),[2] and the Heike monogatari (1180-1185).
In each of these familiar monogatari, the central figures are popularly well known, the major events are generally understood, and the stakes as they were understood at the time are conventionally accepted as elements in the foundation of Japanese culture. The accuracy of each of these historical records has become a compelling subject for further study; and some accounts have been shown to withstand close scrutiny, while other presumed “facts” have turned out to be inaccurate.[3]
The Genpei Jōsuiki, also known as the Genpei Seisuiki (源平盛衰記?), is a 48-book extended version of the Heike Monogatari.
Chapter 1
The two main themes are set in the famous introduction (the bells of the Gion Shōja): impermanence and the fall of the mighty (Taira no Kiyomori).
The chapter describes the rise of the Taira clan and early conflicts at the court. The first Taira who gets access to the Imperial court is Taira no Tadamori (1131). After Tadamori’s death (1153), his son Kiyomori plays a key role in helping the Emperor Go-Shirakawa suppress the Hōgen (1156) and the Heiji (1159) Disturbances thereby gaining more influence in the court affairs. The Taira clan members occupy major government positions, Kiyomori’s daughter becomes the Emperor’s wife, and more than half of all the provinces are under their control.
One of the episodes describing Kiyomori’s arrogance is the famous story about the dancer Giō who falls out of Kiyomori’s favour and becomes a nun.
Kiyomori and the Taira even dare to conflict with the powerful Regent, Fujiwara no Motofusa. Angered by the Taira dominance, Major Counselor Fujiwara no Narichika, Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa, Buddhist monk Saikō and others meet at Shishi-no-tani (the villa of the temple administrator Shunkan) and plot a conspiracy to overthrow Kiyomori. Because of the conflict between Saikō’s sons and warrior-monks of the Enryakuji temple the plot has to be postponed. The great fire (1177) burns the Imperial Palace in the capital, Kyoto.
Chapter 2
In 1177, Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa is in conflict with the Enryakuji temple. Hearing a rumor about a possible attack on Enryakuji, one of the Shishi-no-tani conspirators informs Kiyomori of the plot. The monk Saikō is executed and others are exiled. Kiyomori is angered by the participation of the Retired Emperor in the plot and prepares to arrest him. Shigemori, the eldest virtuous son of Kiyomori, successfully admonishes his father by reminding him of the Confucian value of loyalty to the Emperor. Major Counselor Narichika is exiled to an island and cruelly executed. Other conspirators (Naritsune, Yasuyori and Shunkan) are exiled to the Kikai-ga-shima island near the Satsuma province.
Meanwhile, Enryakuji temple complex is destroyed and a fire at the Zenkōji temple destroys a Buddhist statue. People believe these troubles to be signs of the Taira decline. Those exiled to the Kikai-ga-shima island build a shrine where they pray for return to capital. They make a thousand stupas (Buddhist wooden objects) with their names and throw them into the sea. One of the pieces reaches the shore. It is brought to the capital and shown to Yasuyori’s family. The news reaches Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Kiyomori who see the stupa with emotion.
Chapter 3
The illness of Kiyomori’s pregnant daughter (Kenreimon’in) is attributed to angry spirits of the executed (Narichika) and the exiled. Kiyomori, interested in becoming a grandfather of the Imperial prince, agrees to a general amnesty. Naritsune (Narichika’s son) and Yasuyori are pardoned, but Shunkan is left alone on the Kikai-ga-shima island for letting the anti-Taira conspirators gather at his villa. A famous tragic scene follows when Shunkan beats his feet on the ground in despair. Kiyomori’s daughter gives birth to the future Emperor Antoku (1178). A loyal youth in service of Shunkan, Ariō, journeys to the island finding Shunkan barely alive. Hearing the news of his family’s death, Shunkan kills himself by fasting (1179). His suffering as well as the whirlwind that strikes the capital are seen as signs of the fall of the Taira.
Kiyomori’s virtuous son, Shigemori, goes on a pilgrimage to Kumano and asks the gods for a quick death if the Taira are to fall. In a short while he falls ill and dies. Without Shigemori’s restraining influence, Kiyomori is close to open war with Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa. He leads soldiers to Kyoto where he exiles or dismisses 43 top court officials (including Regent Fujiwara no Motofusa). Next, Kiyomori imprisons Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa in the desolate Seinan palace (1179).
Chapter 4
Emperor Takakura is forced to retire and Antoku (Kiyomori’s grandson, age 3) becomes a new Emperor. Retired Emperor Takakura angers the Enryakuji (Mt. Hiei) monks by going to the Itsukushima Shrine instead of the Enryakuji temple. Minamoto no Yorimasa persuades Prince Mochihito (second son of Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa) to lead Minamoto forces against the Taira and become the Emperor. Prince Mochihito issues an anti-Taira call to arms. The open conflict between the Minamoto and the Taira is triggered by Munemori (Kiyomori’s son) humiliating Minamoto no Yorimasa’s son (by taking away his horse and calling it by the owner’s name).
Kiyomori discovers the anti-Taira plot. Prince Mochihito avoids arrest by fleeing from the capital to the Miidera temple. Yorimasa and the Miidera monks fight with Taira forces at the bridge over the Uji River (1180). Despite bravery of the monks, Taira forces cross the river and win the battle. Yorimasa commits suicide in the Byōdōin temple and Prince Mochihito is killed on the way to the allied Kōfukuji temple in Nara. One of the Prince Mochihito’s sons is forced to become a monk, but the other son flees north to join the Minamoto forces. Kiyomori gives orders to burn the Miidera temple. Many temples are burned and people see it as a bad omen for the Taira.
Chapter 5
Kiyomori moves the capital from Kyoto to Fukuhara (his stronghold) in 1180. Strange ghosts appear to Kiyomori (a face, laughter, skulls, ominous dreams). News of unrest in the eastern provinces (controlled by the Minamoto) reaches the new capital.
A story about the monk Mongaku is inserted as a background to Minamoto no Yoritomo’s revolt. Mongaku is an ascetic with strange powers who requested donations at the court in 1179. After the refusal of Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa he caused trouble at the court and was exiled to Izu.
At Izu, Mongaku convinces Minamoto no Yoritomo to revolt against the Taira. Then he goes to Fukuhara and brings back the Imperial Edict from Go-Shirakawa permitting Minamoto no Yoritomo to overthrow the Taira. Kiyomori sends a military expedition to put down the rebellion of Yoritomo. When they reach the Fuji River, the Taira forces hear stories about the might of eastern warriors and fear that Minamoto forces outnumber them. At night, a flock of birds rises with great noise and the Taira forces, thinking that they are attacked, retreat in panic.
Kiyomori, under pressure from temples and courtiers, moves the capital back to Kyoto. Upon hearing the rumours of an attack being planned by the Taira, monks of the Kōfukuji temple (who supported the rebellion of Prince Mochihito) revolt and kill messengers sent by Kiyomori. The Taira forces attack Nara and burn many important temples (Tōdaiji, Kōfukuji), statues and Buddhist texts. Retired Emperors and courtiers lament the destruction of Nara. This evil deed is believed to lead to Kiyomori’s downfall.
Chapter 6
In 1181, Retired Emperor Takakura dies troubled by the events of the last several years. Kiso no Yoshinaka (cousin of Minamoto no Yoritomo in the northwestern provinces) plans a rebellion against the Taira and raises an army. Messengers bring news of anti-Taira forces gathering under the Minamoto leadership in the eastern provinces, Kyūshū, Shikoku. The Taira have trouble dealing with all the rebellions.
To make things worse for the Taira, their leader, Kiyomori, falls ill. His body is hot as fire and no water can cool him. Water sprayed on his body turns to flames and black smoke that fills the room. Kiyomori’s wife has a dream about a carriage in flames that will take Kiyomori to Hell for burning Buddhist statues (in the Tōdaiji temple). Before dying in agony, Kiyomori makes a wish to have the head of Yoritomo hung before his grave. His death (in 1181, age 64) highlights the themes of impermanence and fall of the mighty. Kiyomori’s evil deeds will become his torturers in Hell. His fame and power turned to smoke (he was cremated) and dust (bones).
In the east, Taira forces are successful in some battles, but are not able to defeat the Minamoto forces. Divine forces punish and kill the governor appointed by Kiyomori to put down Kiso no Yoshinaka’s rebellion. Kiso no Yoshinaka wins a major battle at Yokotagawara (1182). Munemori, the leader of the Taira clan, is conferred a high rank in the court administration.