Edinburgh Castle

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Edinburgh Castle
Edinburgh, Scotland
UK grid reference NT250734

The castle dominates the Edinburgh skyline, as seen here from the Grassmarket to the south

Shown within Scotland

Built Site occupied since the late Bronze Age. Buildings of present castle date from the 12th to 21st centuries
In use Still in use today
Current
owner Historic Scotland
Open to
the public Yes
Garrison British 2nd Infantry Division
Current
commander Major General David MacDowall
Commanders List of Governors of Edinburgh Castle
Battles/wars Sieges and occupations during the Wars of Scottish Independence (1296–1357); Lang Siege (1571–1573); sieges in 1640, 1650, 1689, 1745

Edinburgh Castle is an ancient stronghold which dominates the sky-line of the city of Edinburgh from its position atop Castle Rock. It is Scotland's second-most-visited tourist attraction.[1] Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC. As it stands today though, few of the castle's structures pre-date the Lang Siege of the 16th century, with the notable exception of St Margaret's Chapel, the oldest surviving building in Edinburgh, which dates from the early 12th century.

History

Pre-history of the site

Geology

The Castle stands upon the basalt plug of an extinct volcano which is estimated to have risen some 340 million years ago during the lower Carboniferous age. Standing 120 metres (390 ft) above sea level, the Castle Rock, and the sloping hill to the east, is a classic example of a crag and tail formation. These geological foundations cannot be underestimated in their significance for the subsequent development of the Castle, and indeed the city, and the events which have defined its history. To the south, west and north, the castle is protected by sheer cliffs rearing some 80 metres (260 ft) from the surrounding landscape. This means that the only readily accessible route to the castle lies to the east, where the ridge slopes more gently. But just as its location has rendered the Castle all but impregnable, it has also presented difficulties. Not the least of these is that basalt is an extremely poor aquifer, and therefore providing water to the Upper Ward of the castle in particular has long been problematic, and disastrous under siege conditions.

Earliest habitation

See also: Prehistoric Scotland

The origins of Edinburgh lie so deep beneath the mound of history that writing on the matter is largely speculative and often contradictory. It has been suggested that an early reference to occupation of the site of the Castle can be found as early as the mid-second century AD.[2] Ptolemy (c. 83 – c. 168) refers to a settlement of the Votadini known to the Romans as "Alauna", meaning "rock place", which may be the earliest known name for the Castle Rock.[3]

More doubtful evidence of still earlier habitation is provided by Andrew of Wyntoun (c. 1350 – c. 1423), an early chronicler of Scottish history. Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil alludes to "Ebrawce" (Ebraucus), a legendary King of the Britons, who "byggyd" (built) Edynburgh.[4] According to the earlier English chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100 – c. 1155), Ebraucus had fifty children by his twenty wives, and was the founder of "Kaerebrauc" (York) and "Alclud" (Dumbarton). Monmouth's History states that Ebraucus reigned in Britain at the same time that David reigned in Israel (around 1000 BC).[5] Monmouth mentions a "Maidens' Castle", but does not mention Edinburgh. John Stow (c. 1525 – 1605), credited Ebraucus with building "the Castell of Maidens called Edenbrough".[6] The name "Maiden Castle", Castell Puellarum in Latin, was commonly used in the 16th century.[7]

While there must be serious doubts about the veracity of these early chronicles, an archaeological survey of the Castle in the late 1980s does lend credence to the idea of the site having been settled during the late Bronze Age or early Iron Age, potentially making Castle Rock the longest continually occupied site in Scotland.[8] However, the extent of the finds was not particularly significant and was insufficient to draw any certain conclusions about the precise nature or scale of this earliest known phase of occupation. Whether this was indeed the hall of the fecund King Ebrawce can only be a matter of speculation.

The archaeological evidence becomes more compelling in the Iron Age. Traditionally, it had been supposed that the tribes which inhabited this part of central Scotland had made little or no use of the Castle Rock. Excavations at nearby Traprain Law, Dunsapie Hill, Duddingston and Inveresk had revealed relatively large settlements and it was supposed that these sites had, for some reason, been chosen in preference to the Castle Rock. However, the excavations of the 1980s suggested that there was probably an enclosed hill fort on the rock, although only the fringes of the site were excavated. House fragments revealed were similar to Votadini houses previously found in Northumbria.[9]

The dig revealed clear signs of habitation from the first and second centuries AD, consistent with Ptolemy's reference to "Alauna". Interestingly, these signs of occupation included a good deal of Roman material, including pottery, bronzes and brooches. This may reflect a trading relationship between the Votadini and the Romans beginning with Agricola's foray north, and continuing through to the establishment of the Antonine Wall, when the Romans temporarily established themselves nearby at Cramond.The nature of the settlement at this time is inconclusive, but Driscoll and Yeoman suggest it may have been a broch, similar to the one at Edin's Hall in the Borders.[10] There is no evidence that the Romans actually occupied the Castle Rock, as they did at nearby Traprain Law.[11] From this point onwards there is strong evidence pointing towards continuous habitation of the site through to the present—albeit with fluctuations in population levels.

Early Middle Ages

The castle does not re-appear in contemporary historical records from the time of Ptolemy until around AD 600. Then, in the brythonic epic Y Gododdin, we find a reference to Din Eidyn, "the stronghold of Eidyn". This has been viewed as an early reference to the Castle Rock.[12] The poem tells of the Gododdin King Mynyddog Mwynfawr,[13] and his band of warriors, who, after a year of feasting in their fortress, set out to do battle with the Angles in the area of contemporary Yorkshire. Despite performing glorious deeds of valour and bravery the Brythons were massacred. How far this poetic account of events should be believed is debatable. Moreover, it is by no means universally accepted that the site of Edinburgh Castle and the Hall of Eidyn are synonymous.^{[citation needed]}

The Irish annals record that in 638, after the events related in Y Gododdin, "Etin" was besieged by the Angles under Oswald of Northumbria, and the Gododdin were defeated.[14] The territory around Edinburgh then became part of the Kingdom of Northumbria, which was itself absorbed by England in the 10th century, when Athelstan of England, according to the Annals of Clonmacnoise, "spoiled the Kingdom of Edinburgh".[15] The English withdrew, and Lothian became part of Scotland, during the reign of either Malcolm I of Scotland (ruled 943–954),[16] or his successor Indulf (ruled 954–962).[15]

The archaeological evidence is equivocal; for the relevant period it is entirely based on analysis of midden heaps, with no evidence of structures. Few conclusions can therefore be derived about the status of the settlement during this period, although the midden deposits show no clear break since Roman times.[17]

High Middle Ages

Further information: Scotland in the High Middle Ages

The first documentary reference to a castle at Edinburgh is in John of Fordun's account of the death of King Malcolm III. Fordun places his widow, the future Saint Margaret, at the "Castle of Maidens", where she learns of his death in November 1093. Fordun's account goes on to relate how Margaret died of grief within days, and how Malcolm's brother Donald Bane laid siege to the castle. However, Fordun's chronicle was not written until the later 14th century, and the near-contemporary account of the life of St Margaret, by Bishop Turgot, makes no mention of a castle.[18] During the reign of Malcolm III, Dunfermline rather than Edinburgh was the primary royal residence. This began to change though during the reign of his youngest son, King David I (ruled 1124–1153).

King David's largest contribution to the development of Edinburgh as a site of royal power undoubtedly lay in his administrative reforms. However, he is also credited with effecting more tangible changes to the fabric of the castle. Knowing that the first meeting of the Scottish Parliament occurred at the castle around 1140,[19] it seems there were large buildings occupying the rock at this time. These buildings, and any defences, would probably have been of timber,[20] although two 12th-century stone buildings are known. Of these, St. Margaret's Chapel remains at the summit of the rock. The second was a church, dedicated to St. Mary, which stood on the site of the Scottish National War Memorial.[20] Given that the southern part of the Upper Ward (where Crown Square is now sited) was not suited to being built upon until the construction of the vaults in the fifteenth century, it seems probable that these earlier buildings would have been located towards the northern part of the rock; that is around the area where St. Margaret's Chapel stands. This has led to a suggestion that the chapel is the last remnant of a square, stone keep, which would have formed the bulk of the twelfth-century fortification.[21] The structure may have been similar to the keep of Carlisle Castle, which David I began after 1135.[22]

In 1174, David's successor King William "the Lion" (ruled 1165–1214) was captured by the English at the Battle of Alnwick. He was forced to sign the Treaty of Falaise to secure his release, in return for surrendering Edinburgh Castle, along with the castles of Berwick, Roxburgh and Stirling, to the English King, Henry II. The castle was occupied by the English for twelve years, until 1186, when it was returned to William as the dowry of his English bride, Ermengarde de Beaumont, who had been chosen for him by King Henry.[23]