Asha

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Asha (aša) or arta is the Avestan language and Vedic language term for a concept of cardinal importance[1] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. In the moral sphere, aša/arta represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism."[2] The opposite of Avestan aša is druj, "lie."

The significance of the term is complex, with a highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'.[3][4] For other connotations, see meaning below.

Its Old Persian equivalent is arta-.[c] In Middle Iranian languages the term appears as ard-.[a]

The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis or "genius"[5] of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the Younger Avesta, this figure is more commonly referred to as Asha Vahishta (Aša Vahišta, Arta Vahišta), "Best Truth".[b] The Middle Persian descendant is Ashawahist or Ardwahisht; New Persian Ardibehesht or Ordibehesht. In the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by the prophet himself, it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta, only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of aša/arta.

Etymology

Avestan aša and its Vedic equivalent ṛtá both derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *artá- "truth", which in turn continues Proto-Indo-European *h₂r-to- "properly joined, right, true", from the root *h₂ar also found in *h₂ar-yo-. (Cf. Gk. ortho- and Eng. order.)

The word is attested in Old Persian as arta.

It is unclear whether the variation in Avestan between aša and arta is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggested š was only a convenient way of writing rt and should not be considered phonetically relevant.[6] According to Gray, š is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a voiceless r.[7] Miller suggested that rt was restored when a scribe was aware of the morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the –ta suffix).[8][h]

Avestan druj, like its Vedic Sanskrit cousin druh, appears to derive from the PIE root *dreugh, also continued in German Trug "fraud, deception". Old Norse draugr and Middle Irish aurddrach both mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate druh means "affliction, afflicting demon".

Avestan š

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Avestan š continues Indo-Iranian *-rt-. Its phonetical value and its phonological status (one or two phonemes) are somewhat unclear. The conditions under which change from -rt- to -š- occurs are fundamentally ill-defined. So, for example, ərəta/arəta (Gathic/Younger) "establish" is a variant of aša but is consistently written with /r t/. Similarly, arəti "portion, allot" and aši "recompense." But aməša "immortal" is consistently written with /š/, while marəta "mortal" is consistently written with /r t/. In some instances a change is only evident in Younger Avestan. For example, the Gathic Avestan word for "bridge" is pərətūm, while in Younger Avestan it is pəšūm. Both are singular accusative forms, but when the word is singular nominative the Younger Avestan variant is again (and all but once) with /r t/.

Benveniste suggested š was only a convenient way of writing /rt/ and should not be considered phonetically relevant.[6] According to Gray, š is a misreading, representing /r r/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a voiceless r.[7]

Miller follows the older suggestion that Avestan š represents a phoneme of its own, for which he introduces the symbol "/Ř/" and identifies phonetically as [r̝̥] (a voiceless raised alveolar trill equivalent to the voiceless allophone of Czech ř). He goes on to suggest that in writing, -rt- was restored when a scribe was aware of a morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/.[8][h]

Meaning

Aša "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue,"[3] but may be summarized as follows:

It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality. This reality embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it.[9][j] "This cosmic [...] force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order."[10]

The correspondence between 'truth', reality, and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed from Heraclitus' conception of Logos.[11]

As "truth"

Both Avestan aša/arta and Vedic ŗtá- are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective antonyms. The opposite of Avestan aša/arta is druj-, "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ṛtá- are ánṛta- and druh, likewise "lie".

That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term is attested in Greek: In Isis and Osiris 47, Plutarch calls the divinity Αλήθεια Aletheia, "Truth."[12]

As "existence"

The adjective corresponding to the noun aša/arta, "truth", is Avestan haithya- (haiθiia-), "true", the opposite of which is also druj-. Avestan haithya- derives from Indo-Iranian *sātya that in turn derives from Indo-European *sat- "being, existing". The Sanskrit cognate sátya- means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression haiθīm varəz, "to make true" as in "to bring to realization."[13]

Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the aša/arta, that is, from (root) ŗ with a substantivizing -ta suffix. The root ŗ corresponds to Old Avestan arəta- and Younger Avestan ərəta- "established", hence aša/arta "that which is established."[6]

The synonymity of aša and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the Creator (i.e. of Existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). And, because aša is everything that druj- is not (or vice-versa), since aša is, druj- is not. For details, see Angra Mainyu: In Zoroastrian tradition.

This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, for instance in the first Yasht, dedicated to Ahura Mazda, where the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( Yasht 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of Gandarəβa, the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the druj- that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aša" (Yasht 19.41)

In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts, Sraosha in good words and Aša in good deeds. (Denkard 3.13-14). Aša is thus "represented as active and effective."[14]

As "right working"

Subject to context, aša/arta- is also frequently translated as "right working" or "[that which is] right". The word then (cf. Bartholomae's[15] and Geldner's[16] translations as German language "Recht") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order).

These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, for instance as "the inexorable law of righteousness,"[17] or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order."[18]

As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", aša/arta- is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars (Yasna 44.3), and it is through aša that plants grow (Yasna 48.6).

"Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European *ár- "to (properly) join together" and also with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", arəta-, also means "proper". The antonymic anarəta- (or anarəθa-) means "improper." [19] In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula *sātyas mantras (Yasna 31.6: haiθīm mathrem) "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization).'"[13]